Sunday, 17 July 2011
Dr.A.P.J. Abdul Kalam's message for youngsters.
"அறம், அறிவியல் , ஆன்மிகம் இது முன்றும் இணைந்த இளைஞர்கள் தான் இன்றைய தேவை" . - டாக்டர்.எ.பி.ஜே. அப்துல் கலாம்.
Saturday, 9 July 2011
Super 30 : Helping poor Indians crack toughest test
Super 30 is a highly ambitious and innovative educational program running under the banner of "Ramanujan School of Mathematics". It hunts for 30 meritorious talents from among the economically backward sections of the society and shapes them for India's most prestigious institution – the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT). In the last seven years, it has produced hundreds IITians from extremely poor background. During this program students are provided absolutely free coaching, lodging and food. Super 30 targets students from extremely poor families. They have all seen the change with sheer disbelief in their eyes that their children are now going to be top technocrats.
CAREER : If you have it in you and you feel for the poor, but talented bunch of students, here is an opportunity for you to contribute to the all-important cause. Come to Super 30 and help shape winners out of talented students from economically deprived sections. Innovations is the key here. It will be an immensely satisfying experience working with extraordinary students and share their moments of joy. You can e-mail your resume, if you have a passion to work for the poor students having extraordinary talent.
More details visit : http://www.super30.org/index.html
CAREER : If you have it in you and you feel for the poor, but talented bunch of students, here is an opportunity for you to contribute to the all-important cause. Come to Super 30 and help shape winners out of talented students from economically deprived sections. Innovations is the key here. It will be an immensely satisfying experience working with extraordinary students and share their moments of joy. You can e-mail your resume, if you have a passion to work for the poor students having extraordinary talent.
More details visit : http://www.super30.org/index.html
Monday, 6 June 2011
How black money can transform India
Intermittent talks about huge sums of money parked by Indian nationals in foreign tax havens were doing the rounds ever since a report attributed to Swiss Banking Association started doing the rounds in 2006. The Wikileaks disclosures of Julian Assange, however, provided the immediate context for Anna Hazare to step in and rally the civil society against graft.
The latest public figure to join the anti-graft bandwagon, of course, has been Baba Ramdev who landed in Delhi in a charter aircraft to launch a Satyagraha movement. Baba's fast has created quite a stir. He coerced the UPA government into giving written assurances about the latter's commitment to bring black money back into the country and to clamp down on corruption.
However, in spite of getting that assurance, Baba reneged on his pledge to withdraw the agitation. It saw the government coming down hard on him and his followers and break up the fast in a midnight clampdown. Rights activists have rightly pointed out the high-handed manner in which the government dealt with Baba and his fasting followers. They have also justifiably criticised imposition of Article 144 at the Ramlila Maidan as Baba's agitation was completely peaceful and never threatened the law and order situation.
Indians, cutting across caste, class, religion and social standing, are unitedly voicing a demand for the black money to be brought back. But how would the money be used in case the UPA government, reeling under multiple exposes of scams and financial irregularities, balks under popular pressure and manages to bring it back?
At ibnlive, we discussed this and the following is our suggestion. However, our maths is based on recovery of the money from Switzerland alone as no concrete figures are available for Indian money parked in other places like Liechenstein, Luxembourg, Cayman Islands, Seychelles, Mauritius, Macau, etc.
According to several economists and financial experts, bank deposits in the territory of Switzerland by nationals of India total upwards of $1.4 billion. That is close to the nominal GDP of India today. IT kind of gives credence to the widely held belief that $1.456 trillion of Indian money is parked in Swiss bank vaults.
India, as of December 2010, had external debt amounting to $ 237 billion, according to the CIA World Factbook numbers.
First step should be to pay this debt off. Assuming that with interest, the figure rises to even $275 billion, the country would be left with $ 1.181 trillion after paying off all its foreign debt.
A Goldman Sachs study in 2010 has reported that India would need to invest $1 trillion in economic and social infrastructure to sustain an 8 to 9 per cent growth momentum and to overcome its problems. However, in the report, the investment banker clearly mentions that this $1 trillion includes government funding, private enterprise as well as foreign investment.
The suggestions of the report have been corroborated by Rahul Saraogi, managing director at Atyant Capital in a 2011 interview with Value Investing Letter.
Infrastructure in India, unlike in the case of China, will be built only using a public-private partnership model. In certain sectors like telecom, airports and power, the model has been successfully working. In case of developments of ports, roads, railways and urban transportation, the models are evolving. Assuming up to 70 per cent of the funding comes from the government and the rest from other players, India would invest $ 700 billion in this sector. The bulk of the government's investment should be in water treatment, sanitation, waste management, renewable energy, health, education, urban infrastructure and allied fields.
The 8 to 9 per cent YoY (year on year) growth will ensure that the government has more than enough funds to pay for maintenance and salary of workforce needed to maintain and run the expanded services.
Now, we are left with $ 481 billion.
India is one of the hungriest nations in the world. It is ranked 67th out of 84 countries listed and ranked on the Global Hunger Index report, 2010. India accounts for 42 per cent of the world's underweight children.
Unless India ensures food security for all its people, its claim for greater role in the world will be taken with a pinch, if not a lump, of salt. In that regard, universalisation of PDS is the simplest and surest way to ensure food security.
In that regard, Dr Abhijit Sen of the Planning Commission had proposed a minimum support price-linked PDS scheme, excluding 25 per cent of the population who are not the target group. But this was shot down by C. Rangarajan, chairman of the Rangarajan Committee, who thought that streamlining the present PDS system would be enough.
Though the government has made up its mind on the proposed Food Security Bill, it is not too sure if universalisation of PDS would be a viable measure.
A study by Praveen Jha, Associate Professor at Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) and Nilachal Acharya of the Delhi-based Centre for Budget Governance and Accountability (CBGA), show that Universalisation of PDS is even possible without the help of this magic money we are talking about. Their study shows that an additional Rs 94,419 crore per annum will be required to supplement the present provisions of food subsidy which translates to roughly $21 billion.
Now taking into account inflation over the next ten years, a figure of $ 300 billion will be enough to take all Indians out of the hunger trap. With quality healthcare and social infrastructure, India can then start looking like a developed nation.
Out of the remaining $181 billion, $60 billion should go in strengthening our defence capabilities. Over and above the already-approved $100 billion procurement plan, that should give us one of the meanest fighting forces in the world.
The remaining $ 121 billion money should be used to fund higher education, cutting-edge scientific and social research institutes and exclusive scientific projects.
Undoubtedly, all this is only possible if the money is available. The Swiss Banking Association has already said that it might hand over to the Indian government a list of names of individuals who have accounts there if New Delhi so requested. However, unlike the German government, the Congress-led UPA seems to be dragging its feet.
Even Wikileaks founder Julian Assange has criticised New Delhi for giving all the wrong excuses for not acting. Political observers feel that the government is worried that names of account holders coming into the public domain might haunt the various parties that make up UPA. The grapevine has it that several prominent political leaders and their family members, apart from prominent businessmen and public figures, have money parked there.
So till the government actually swings into action, which is highly unlikely, all this is entirely in the realm of speculative fantasy. But just because our government fails to fulfil our wishes, we should not stop having them.
Sunday, 5 June 2011
Dr.Abdul Kalam's message for Youngsters... A Treasure for me.
Best website for Competitive Exams
Saturday, 4 June 2011
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Career guidance : VLSI Design
VLSI : An article about VLSI field and How to make career in this field
Contributors
Mr. Dilip Risbud (risbud@yahoo.com)
Vice President, IC Operations
Silicon Bridge, Inc.
Fremont, CA
Mr. Sameer D. Sahasrabuddhe (Home Page)
MTech Student
Reconfigurable Computing Lab
KReSIT, IIT-Bombay
Compiled by
Ms. Shailaja Kulkarni (shailuk77@hotpop.com)
Software Engineer
Lotus Automations Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai
Mr. Dilip Risbud (risbud@yahoo.com)
Vice President, IC Operations
Silicon Bridge, Inc.
Fremont, CA
Mr. Sameer D. Sahasrabuddhe (Home Page)
MTech Student
Reconfigurable Computing Lab
KReSIT, IIT-Bombay
Compiled by
Ms. Shailaja Kulkarni (shailuk77@hotpop.com)
Software Engineer
Lotus Automations Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai
PROLOGUE
Most of the students of Electronics Engineering are exposed to Integrated Circuits (IC's) at a very basic level, involving SSI (small scale integration) circuits like logic gates or MSI (medium scale integration) circuits like multiplexers, parity encoders etc. But there is a lot bigger world out there involving miniaturisation at levels so great, that a micrometer and a microsecond are literally considered huge! This is the world of VLSI - Very Large Scale Integration. The article aims at trying to introduce Electronics Engineering students to the possibilities and the work involved in this field.
INTRODUCTION
What is VLSI?
VLSI stands for "Very Large Scale Integration". This is the field which involves packing more and more logic devices into smaller and smaller areas.Thanks to VLSI, circuits that would have taken boardfuls of space can now be put into a small space few millimeters across! This has opened up a big opportunity to do things that were not possible before. VLSI circuits are everywhere ... your computer, your car, your brand new state-of-the-art digital camera, the cell-phones, and what have you. All this involves a lot of expertise on many fronts within the same field, which we will look at in later sections.
VLSI has been around for a long time, there is nothing new about it ... but as a side effect of advances in the world of computers, there has been a dramatic proliferation of tools that can be used to design VLSI circuits. Alongside, obeying Moore's law, the capability of an IC has increased exponentially over the years, in terms of computation power, utilisation of available area, yield. The combined effect of these two advances is that people can now put diverse functionality into the IC's, opening up new frontiers. Examples are embedded systems, where intelligent devices are put inside everyday objects, and ubiquitous computing where small computing devices proliferate to such an extent that even the shoes you wear may actually do something useful like monitoring your heartbeats! These two fields are kinda related, and getting into their description can easily lead to another article.
VLSI has been around for a long time, there is nothing new about it ... but as a side effect of advances in the world of computers, there has been a dramatic proliferation of tools that can be used to design VLSI circuits. Alongside, obeying Moore's law, the capability of an IC has increased exponentially over the years, in terms of computation power, utilisation of available area, yield. The combined effect of these two advances is that people can now put diverse functionality into the IC's, opening up new frontiers. Examples are embedded systems, where intelligent devices are put inside everyday objects, and ubiquitous computing where small computing devices proliferate to such an extent that even the shoes you wear may actually do something useful like monitoring your heartbeats! These two fields are kinda related, and getting into their description can easily lead to another article.
DEALING WITH VLSI CIRCUITS
Digital VLSI circuits are predominantly CMOS based. The way normal blocks like latches and gates are implemented is different from what students have seen so far, but the behaviour remains the same. All the miniaturisation involves new things to consider. A lot of thought has to go into actual implementations as well as design. Let us look at some of the factors involved ...
1. Circuit Delays. Large complicated circuits running at very high frequencies have one big problem to tackle - the problem of delays in propagation of signals through gates and wires ... even for areas a few micrometers across! The operation speed is so large that as the delays add up, they can actually become comparable to the clock speeds.
2. Power. Another effect of high operation frequencies is increased consumption of power. This has two-fold effect - devices consume batteries faster, and heat dissipation increases. Coupled with the fact that surface areas have decreased, heat poses a major threat to the stability of the circuit itself.
3. Layout. Laying out the circuit components is task common to all branches of electronics. Whats so special in our case is that there are many possible ways to do this; there can be multiple layers of different materials on the same silicon, there can be different arrangements of the smaller parts for the same component and so on.
The power dissipation and speed in a circuit present a trade-off; if we try to optimise on one, the other is affected. The choice between the two is determined by the way we chose the layout the circuit components. Layout can also affect the fabrication of VLSI chips, making it either easy or difficult to implement the components on the silicon.
1. Circuit Delays. Large complicated circuits running at very high frequencies have one big problem to tackle - the problem of delays in propagation of signals through gates and wires ... even for areas a few micrometers across! The operation speed is so large that as the delays add up, they can actually become comparable to the clock speeds.
2. Power. Another effect of high operation frequencies is increased consumption of power. This has two-fold effect - devices consume batteries faster, and heat dissipation increases. Coupled with the fact that surface areas have decreased, heat poses a major threat to the stability of the circuit itself.
3. Layout. Laying out the circuit components is task common to all branches of electronics. Whats so special in our case is that there are many possible ways to do this; there can be multiple layers of different materials on the same silicon, there can be different arrangements of the smaller parts for the same component and so on.
The power dissipation and speed in a circuit present a trade-off; if we try to optimise on one, the other is affected. The choice between the two is determined by the way we chose the layout the circuit components. Layout can also affect the fabrication of VLSI chips, making it either easy or difficult to implement the components on the silicon.
THE VLSI DESIGN PROCESS
A typical digital design flow is as follows:
Specification
Architecture
RTL Coding
RTL Verification
Synthesis
Backend
Tape Out to Foundry to get end product….a wafer with repeated number of identical Ics.
All modern digital designs start with a designer writing a hardware description of the IC (using HDL or Hardware Description Language) in Verilog/VHDL. A Verilog or VHDL program essentially describes the hardware (logic gates, Flip-Flops, counters etc) and the interconnect of the circuit blocks and the functionality. Various CAD tools are available to synthesize a circuit based on the HDL. The most widely used synthesis tools come from two CAD companies. Synposys and Cadence.
Without going into details, we can say that the VHDL, can be called as the "C" of the VLSI industry. VHDL stands for "VHSIC Hardware Definition Language", where VHSIC stands for "Very High Speed Integrated Circuit". This languages is used to design the circuits at a high-level, in two ways. It can either be a behavioural description, which describes what the circuit is supposed to do, or a structural description, which describes what the circuit is made of. There are other languages for describing circuits, such as Verilog, which work in a similar fashion.
Both forms of description are then used to generate a very low-level description that actually spells out how all this is to be fabricated on the silicon chips. This will result in the manufacture of the intended IC.
A typical analog design flow is as follows:
In case of analog design, the flow changes somewhat.
Specifications
Architecture
Circuit Design
SPICE Simulation
Layout
Parametric Extraction / Back Annotation
Final Design
Tape Out to foundry.
While digital design is highly automated now, very small portion of analog design can be automated. There is a hardware description language called AHDL but is not widely used as it does not accurately give us the behavioral model of the circuit because of the complexity of the effects of parasitic on the analog behavior of the circuit. Many analog chips are what are termed as “flat” or non-hierarchical designs. This is true for small transistor count chips such as an operational amplifier, or a filter or a power management chip. For more complex analog chips such as data converters, the design is done at a transistor level, building up to a cell level, then a block level and then integrated at a chip level. Not many CAD tools are available for analog design even today and thus analog design remains a difficult art. SPICE remains the most useful simulation tool for analog as well as digital design.
Specification
Architecture
RTL Coding
RTL Verification
Synthesis
Backend
Tape Out to Foundry to get end product….a wafer with repeated number of identical Ics.
All modern digital designs start with a designer writing a hardware description of the IC (using HDL or Hardware Description Language) in Verilog/VHDL. A Verilog or VHDL program essentially describes the hardware (logic gates, Flip-Flops, counters etc) and the interconnect of the circuit blocks and the functionality. Various CAD tools are available to synthesize a circuit based on the HDL. The most widely used synthesis tools come from two CAD companies. Synposys and Cadence.
Without going into details, we can say that the VHDL, can be called as the "C" of the VLSI industry. VHDL stands for "VHSIC Hardware Definition Language", where VHSIC stands for "Very High Speed Integrated Circuit". This languages is used to design the circuits at a high-level, in two ways. It can either be a behavioural description, which describes what the circuit is supposed to do, or a structural description, which describes what the circuit is made of. There are other languages for describing circuits, such as Verilog, which work in a similar fashion.
Both forms of description are then used to generate a very low-level description that actually spells out how all this is to be fabricated on the silicon chips. This will result in the manufacture of the intended IC.
A typical analog design flow is as follows:
In case of analog design, the flow changes somewhat.
Specifications
Architecture
Circuit Design
SPICE Simulation
Layout
Parametric Extraction / Back Annotation
Final Design
Tape Out to foundry.
While digital design is highly automated now, very small portion of analog design can be automated. There is a hardware description language called AHDL but is not widely used as it does not accurately give us the behavioral model of the circuit because of the complexity of the effects of parasitic on the analog behavior of the circuit. Many analog chips are what are termed as “flat” or non-hierarchical designs. This is true for small transistor count chips such as an operational amplifier, or a filter or a power management chip. For more complex analog chips such as data converters, the design is done at a transistor level, building up to a cell level, then a block level and then integrated at a chip level. Not many CAD tools are available for analog design even today and thus analog design remains a difficult art. SPICE remains the most useful simulation tool for analog as well as digital design.
MOST OF TODAY’S VLSI DESIGNS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THREE CATEGORIES:
1. Analog:
Small transistor count precision circuits such as Amplifiers, Data converters, filters, Phase Locked Loops, Sensors etc.
2. ASICS or Application Specific Integrated Circuits:
Progress in the fabrication of IC's has enabled us to create fast and powerful circuits in smaller and smaller devices. This also means that we can pack a lot more of functionality into the same area. The biggest application of this ability is found in the design of ASIC's. These are IC's that are created for specific purposes - each device is created to do a particular job, and do it well. The most common application area for this is DSP - signal filters, image compression, etc. To go to extremes, consider the fact that the digital wristwatch normally consists of a single IC doing all the time-keeping jobs as well as extra features like games, calendar, etc.
3. SoC or Systems on a chip:
These are highly complex mixed signal circuits (digital and analog all on the same chip). A network processor chip or a wireless radio chip is an example of an SoC.
Small transistor count precision circuits such as Amplifiers, Data converters, filters, Phase Locked Loops, Sensors etc.
2. ASICS or Application Specific Integrated Circuits:
Progress in the fabrication of IC's has enabled us to create fast and powerful circuits in smaller and smaller devices. This also means that we can pack a lot more of functionality into the same area. The biggest application of this ability is found in the design of ASIC's. These are IC's that are created for specific purposes - each device is created to do a particular job, and do it well. The most common application area for this is DSP - signal filters, image compression, etc. To go to extremes, consider the fact that the digital wristwatch normally consists of a single IC doing all the time-keeping jobs as well as extra features like games, calendar, etc.
3. SoC or Systems on a chip:
These are highly complex mixed signal circuits (digital and analog all on the same chip). A network processor chip or a wireless radio chip is an example of an SoC.
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF VLSI
There are a number of directions a person can take in VLSI, and they are all closely related to each other. Together, these developments are going to make possible the visions of embedded systems and ubiquitous computing.
1. Reconfigurable computing:
Reconfigurable computing is a very interesting and pretty recent development in microelectronics. It involves fabricating circuits that can be reprogrammed on the fly! And no, we are not talking about microcontrollers running with EEPROM inside. Reconfigurable computing involves specially fabricated devices called FPGA's, that when programmed act just like normal electronic circuits. They are so designed that by changing or "reprogramming" the connections between numerous sub modules, the FPGA's can be made to behave like any circuit we wish.
This fantastic ability to create modifiable circuits again opens up new possibilities in microelectronics. Consider for example, microprocessors which are partly reconfigurable. We know that running complex programs can benefit greatly if support was built into the hardware itself. We could have a microprocessor that could optimise itself for every task that it tackled! Or then consider a system that is too big to implement on hardware that may be limited by cost, or other constraints. If we use a reconfigurable platform, we could design the system so that parts of it are mapped onto the same hardware, at different times. One could think of many such applications, not the least of which is prototyping - using an FPGA to try out a new design before it is actually fabricated. This can drastically reduce development cycles, and also save some money that would have been spent in fabricating prototype IC's
2. Software Engineers taking over hardware design?:
ASIC's provide the path to creating miniature devices that can do a lot of diverse functions. But with the impending boom in this kind of technology, what we need is a large number of people who can design these IC's. This is where we realise that we cross the threshold between a chip designer and a systems designer at a higher level. Does a person designing a chip really need to know every minute detail of the IC manufacturing process? Can there be tools that allow a designer to simply create design specifications that get translated into hardware specifications?
The solution to this is rather simple - hardware compilers or silicon compilers as they are called. We know by now, that there exist languages like VHDL which can be used to specify the design of a chip. What if we had a compiler that converts a high level language into a VHDL specification? The potential of this technology is tremendous - in simple manner, we can convert all the software programmers into hardware designers!
3. The need for hardware compilers:
Before we go further let us look at why we need this kind of technology, that can convert high-level languages into hardware definitions. We see a set of needs which actually lead from one to the other in a series.
A. Rapid development cycles.
The traditional method of designing hardware is a long and winding process, going through many stages with special effort spent in design verification at every stage. This means that the time from drawing board to market, is very long. This proves to be rather undesirable in case of large expanding market, with many competitors trying to grab a share. We need alternatives to cut down on this time so that new ideas reach the market faster, where the first person to get in normally gains a large advantage.
B. Large number of designers.
With embedded systems becoming more and more popular, there is a need for a large number of chip designers, who can churn out chips designed for specific applications. Its impractical to think of training so many people in the intricacies of VLSI design.
C. Specialized training.
A person who wishes to design ASIC's will require extensive training in the field of VLSI design. But we cannot possibly expect to find a large number of people who would wish to undergo such training. Also, the process of training these people will itself entail large investments in time and money. This means there has to be system a which can abstract out all the details of VLSI, and which allows the user to think in simple system-level terms.
There are quite a few tools available for using high-level languages in circuit design. But this area has started showing fruits only recently. For example, there is a language called Handel-C, that looks just like good old C. But it has some special extensions that make it usable for defining circuits. A program written in Handel-C, can be represented block-by-block by hardware equivalents. And in doing all this, the compiler takes care of all low-level issues like clock-frequency, layout, etc. The biggest selling point is that the user does not really have to learn anything new, except for the few extensions made to C, so that it may be conveniently used for circuit design.
Another quite different language, that is still under development, is Lava. This is based on an esoteric branch of computer science, called "functional programming". FP itself is pretty old, and is radically different from the normal way we write programs. This is because it assumes parallel execution as a part of its structure - its not based on the normal idea of "sequence of instructions". This parallel nature is something very suitable for hardware since the logic circuits are is inherently parallel in nature. Preliminary studies have shown that Lava can actually create better circuits than VHDL itself, since it affords a high-level view of the system, without losing sight of low-level features.
1. Reconfigurable computing:
Reconfigurable computing is a very interesting and pretty recent development in microelectronics. It involves fabricating circuits that can be reprogrammed on the fly! And no, we are not talking about microcontrollers running with EEPROM inside. Reconfigurable computing involves specially fabricated devices called FPGA's, that when programmed act just like normal electronic circuits. They are so designed that by changing or "reprogramming" the connections between numerous sub modules, the FPGA's can be made to behave like any circuit we wish.
This fantastic ability to create modifiable circuits again opens up new possibilities in microelectronics. Consider for example, microprocessors which are partly reconfigurable. We know that running complex programs can benefit greatly if support was built into the hardware itself. We could have a microprocessor that could optimise itself for every task that it tackled! Or then consider a system that is too big to implement on hardware that may be limited by cost, or other constraints. If we use a reconfigurable platform, we could design the system so that parts of it are mapped onto the same hardware, at different times. One could think of many such applications, not the least of which is prototyping - using an FPGA to try out a new design before it is actually fabricated. This can drastically reduce development cycles, and also save some money that would have been spent in fabricating prototype IC's
2. Software Engineers taking over hardware design?:
ASIC's provide the path to creating miniature devices that can do a lot of diverse functions. But with the impending boom in this kind of technology, what we need is a large number of people who can design these IC's. This is where we realise that we cross the threshold between a chip designer and a systems designer at a higher level. Does a person designing a chip really need to know every minute detail of the IC manufacturing process? Can there be tools that allow a designer to simply create design specifications that get translated into hardware specifications?
The solution to this is rather simple - hardware compilers or silicon compilers as they are called. We know by now, that there exist languages like VHDL which can be used to specify the design of a chip. What if we had a compiler that converts a high level language into a VHDL specification? The potential of this technology is tremendous - in simple manner, we can convert all the software programmers into hardware designers!
3. The need for hardware compilers:
Before we go further let us look at why we need this kind of technology, that can convert high-level languages into hardware definitions. We see a set of needs which actually lead from one to the other in a series.
A. Rapid development cycles.
The traditional method of designing hardware is a long and winding process, going through many stages with special effort spent in design verification at every stage. This means that the time from drawing board to market, is very long. This proves to be rather undesirable in case of large expanding market, with many competitors trying to grab a share. We need alternatives to cut down on this time so that new ideas reach the market faster, where the first person to get in normally gains a large advantage.
B. Large number of designers.
With embedded systems becoming more and more popular, there is a need for a large number of chip designers, who can churn out chips designed for specific applications. Its impractical to think of training so many people in the intricacies of VLSI design.
C. Specialized training.
A person who wishes to design ASIC's will require extensive training in the field of VLSI design. But we cannot possibly expect to find a large number of people who would wish to undergo such training. Also, the process of training these people will itself entail large investments in time and money. This means there has to be system a which can abstract out all the details of VLSI, and which allows the user to think in simple system-level terms.
There are quite a few tools available for using high-level languages in circuit design. But this area has started showing fruits only recently. For example, there is a language called Handel-C, that looks just like good old C. But it has some special extensions that make it usable for defining circuits. A program written in Handel-C, can be represented block-by-block by hardware equivalents. And in doing all this, the compiler takes care of all low-level issues like clock-frequency, layout, etc. The biggest selling point is that the user does not really have to learn anything new, except for the few extensions made to C, so that it may be conveniently used for circuit design.
Another quite different language, that is still under development, is Lava. This is based on an esoteric branch of computer science, called "functional programming". FP itself is pretty old, and is radically different from the normal way we write programs. This is because it assumes parallel execution as a part of its structure - its not based on the normal idea of "sequence of instructions". This parallel nature is something very suitable for hardware since the logic circuits are is inherently parallel in nature. Preliminary studies have shown that Lava can actually create better circuits than VHDL itself, since it affords a high-level view of the system, without losing sight of low-level features.
WHAT SORTS OF JOBS DOES AN ELECTRONICS ENGINEER DO?
As mentioned above, the main job functions in this industry are Design, Product, Test, Applications and Process Engineering. For the sake of clarity, product engineering and test engineering functions are described separately, but it is most efficient to combine these two functions into one engineer because of the interdependency and overlap of skills, tasks and job functions.
1. Design Engineer:
Takes specifications, defines architecture, does circuit design, runs simulations, supervises layout, tapes out the chip to the foundry, evaluates the prototype once the chip comes back from the fab.
2. Product Engineer:
Gets involved in the project during the design phase, ensures manufacturability, develops characterization plan, assembly guidelines, develops quality and reliability plan, evaluates the chip with the design engineer, evaluates the chip through characterization, reliability qualification and manufacturing yield point of view (statistical data analysis). He is responsible for production release and is therefore regarded as a team leader on the project. Post production, he is responsible for customer returns, failure analysis, and corrective actions including design changes.
3. Test Engineer:
Develops test plan for the chip based on specifications and data sheet, creates characterization and production program for the bench test or the ATE (Automatic Test Equipment), designs test board hardware, correlates ATE results with the bench results to validate silicon to compare with simulation results. He works closely with the product engineer to ensure smooth release to production and post release support.
4. Applications Engineer:
Defines new products from system point of view at the customer’s end, based on marketing input. His mission is to ensure the chip works in the system designed or used by the customers, and complies with appropriate standards (such as Ethernet, SONET, WiFi etc.). He is responsible for all customer technical support, firmware development, evaluation boards, data sheets and all product documentation such as application notes, trade shows, magazine articles, evaluation reports, software drives and so on.
5. Process Engineer:
This is a highly specialized function which involves new wafer process development, device modeling, and lots of research and development projects. There are no quick rewards on this job! If you are R&D oriented, highly trained in semiconductor device physics area, do not mind wearing bunny suits (the clean room uniforms used in all fabs), willing to experiment, this job is for you.
6. Packaging Engineer:
This is another highly specialized job function. He develops precision packaging technology, new package designs for the chips, does the characterization of new packages, and does electrical modeling of the new designs.
7. CAD Engineer:
This is an engineering function that supports the design engineering function. He is responsible for acquiring, maintaining or developing all CAD tools used by a design engineer. Most companies buy commercially available CAD tools for schematic capture, simulation, synthesis, test vector generation, layout, parametric extraction, power estimation, and timing closure; but in several cases, these tools need some type of customization. A CAD engineer needs to be highly skilled in the use of these tools, be able to write software routines to automate as many functions as possible and have a clear understanding of the entire design flow.
1. Design Engineer:
Takes specifications, defines architecture, does circuit design, runs simulations, supervises layout, tapes out the chip to the foundry, evaluates the prototype once the chip comes back from the fab.
2. Product Engineer:
Gets involved in the project during the design phase, ensures manufacturability, develops characterization plan, assembly guidelines, develops quality and reliability plan, evaluates the chip with the design engineer, evaluates the chip through characterization, reliability qualification and manufacturing yield point of view (statistical data analysis). He is responsible for production release and is therefore regarded as a team leader on the project. Post production, he is responsible for customer returns, failure analysis, and corrective actions including design changes.
3. Test Engineer:
Develops test plan for the chip based on specifications and data sheet, creates characterization and production program for the bench test or the ATE (Automatic Test Equipment), designs test board hardware, correlates ATE results with the bench results to validate silicon to compare with simulation results. He works closely with the product engineer to ensure smooth release to production and post release support.
4. Applications Engineer:
Defines new products from system point of view at the customer’s end, based on marketing input. His mission is to ensure the chip works in the system designed or used by the customers, and complies with appropriate standards (such as Ethernet, SONET, WiFi etc.). He is responsible for all customer technical support, firmware development, evaluation boards, data sheets and all product documentation such as application notes, trade shows, magazine articles, evaluation reports, software drives and so on.
5. Process Engineer:
This is a highly specialized function which involves new wafer process development, device modeling, and lots of research and development projects. There are no quick rewards on this job! If you are R&D oriented, highly trained in semiconductor device physics area, do not mind wearing bunny suits (the clean room uniforms used in all fabs), willing to experiment, this job is for you.
6. Packaging Engineer:
This is another highly specialized job function. He develops precision packaging technology, new package designs for the chips, does the characterization of new packages, and does electrical modeling of the new designs.
7. CAD Engineer:
This is an engineering function that supports the design engineering function. He is responsible for acquiring, maintaining or developing all CAD tools used by a design engineer. Most companies buy commercially available CAD tools for schematic capture, simulation, synthesis, test vector generation, layout, parametric extraction, power estimation, and timing closure; but in several cases, these tools need some type of customization. A CAD engineer needs to be highly skilled in the use of these tools, be able to write software routines to automate as many functions as possible and have a clear understanding of the entire design flow.
WHO CAN ENTER THIS FIELD AND HOW?
Those of us, who are already enjoying the brainteasers in designing and testing The Chips, find it very rewarding. Not just from intellectual point of view but also from the “pocket” point of view. When these two views converge, it creates an engineer’s paradise. Who wouldn’t like best of both worlds? With all the innovation and rapid development, this field has virtually unlimited scope to grow.
This is all fine, but it raises a million questions. To state a few; How does one get a foot in the door in this field? When do you start thinking about choosing this branch? What does it take? Where do you get the training? What sort of jobs are available and where? How much does it really pay as an engineer and what are the growth prospects for a fresh entrant? Does he choose a technical career path or a management path? This is an attempt to guide you on the right path when you are about make an important choice in your career. The idea is to give you a flavor of what to look for, and not to intimidate you with technical jargon (not yet anyway!) and information overload.
First of all, let’s make it clear that it is not mandatory to have a BE in Electronics to work in this field. It certainly is the obvious degree to earn, but quality graduate and post-graduate degree in Physics also qualifies one to work as an engineer. The Physics of Semiconductor Devices is the fundamental basis of VLSI. We will see how the choice of various curricula shapes up the job scene, but for now, let’s concentrate on the initials.
This is all fine, but it raises a million questions. To state a few; How does one get a foot in the door in this field? When do you start thinking about choosing this branch? What does it take? Where do you get the training? What sort of jobs are available and where? How much does it really pay as an engineer and what are the growth prospects for a fresh entrant? Does he choose a technical career path or a management path? This is an attempt to guide you on the right path when you are about make an important choice in your career. The idea is to give you a flavor of what to look for, and not to intimidate you with technical jargon (not yet anyway!) and information overload.
First of all, let’s make it clear that it is not mandatory to have a BE in Electronics to work in this field. It certainly is the obvious degree to earn, but quality graduate and post-graduate degree in Physics also qualifies one to work as an engineer. The Physics of Semiconductor Devices is the fundamental basis of VLSI. We will see how the choice of various curricula shapes up the job scene, but for now, let’s concentrate on the initials.
WHEN IS THE RIGHT TIME TO THINK ABOUT MICROE?
As is always the case, earlier the better. If you ever tinkered with a broken radio set, you have already started. Academically, the right time to acquaint yourself with various specializations of Electronics is when you are in second or third year of engineering. You can choose your electives so that you can concentrate more on specific subjects. A fresh engineer has several opportunities to use his engineering skills in the VLSI world. Primarily the jobs can be classified as a Design engineer, Product engineer, Test engineer, Process engineer or an Applications engineer. Of course there are other important functions such as a CAD engineer who keeps developing (or maintaining) the all important design CAD tools and systems. Irrespective of which job functions one chooses, there are certain basic skills required to break into this field. Typical coursework needed for a VLSI engineer (See sample job definitions in a later section) is given below. (complexity will vary for undergrad and grad, but the topics are the same). Depending upon the school, and even the country, the way these courses are organized and taught may vary significantly. However the following list is intended to give you a flavor of what an electronics engineer is expected to know.
Core Courses (Mandatory in most Engineering Schools)
1) Physics of Semiconductor Devices
2) Linear Systems
3) Probability and Random Variables
4) Engineering Mathematics (Fourier, Laplace and Z Transforms)
5) Circuit Analysis
6) Engineering Electromagnetics
Electives (courses you can mix and match from)
Electives comprise a long list of choices that make up several specializations. An undergraduate (BE in India, BSEE in the US) student chooses courses such that he continues in that field in graduate school (MS and Ph.D. level). Sample list is as follows:
Core Courses (Mandatory in most Engineering Schools)
1) Physics of Semiconductor Devices
2) Linear Systems
3) Probability and Random Variables
4) Engineering Mathematics (Fourier, Laplace and Z Transforms)
5) Circuit Analysis
6) Engineering Electromagnetics
Electives (courses you can mix and match from)
Electives comprise a long list of choices that make up several specializations. An undergraduate (BE in India, BSEE in the US) student chooses courses such that he continues in that field in graduate school (MS and Ph.D. level). Sample list is as follows:
Analog Design
·Introductory Electronics I & II
·The Electrical Engineering Profession
·Introduction to Circuits
·Intro to Signals and Systems
·Bipolar Analog Integrated Circuits
·Principles and Models of Semiconductor Devices
·Basic Physics for Solid State Electronics
·Integrated Circuits Technology and Design Seminar
·Advanced Integrated Circuit Fabrication Processes
·Digital MOS Integrated Circuits
·VLSI Data Conversion Circuits
·Advanced VLSI Devices
·Computer-Aided Design of VLSI Systems
Digital Design
·Digital Design Laboratory
·Design Projects in VLSI Systems
·Digital Systems Engineering
·Logic Design
·Digital Filtering
·Design Projects in VLSI Systems
Communications
·Introduction to Communications
·Analog Communications Design Laboratory
·Wireless Electromagnetic Design Laboratory
·Data Communication Engineering
·Microwave Engineering
·Fundamentals of Noise Processes
·Antennas for Telecommunications and Remote Sensing
·RF Circuit Design / High Frequency Laboratory
·Adaptive Wireless Communication
Other Specializations:
·Signal Processing
·Mechatronics (This is one of the latest fields)
·Medical Electronics
·Lasers
·Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices & Sensors
·Business Management for engineers
·Digital Image Processing
·Processor Design
HOW TO SPECIALIZE IN THIS FIELD?
After acquiring basic required degree in Electronics Engineering or allied Branches or Postgraduate degree in Physics one can choose specialization in this field.
In US:
If you wish to do post graduate degree in US you will have to take up GRE, TOFEL Then follow the required procedure to get into MS and start with MS in VLSI Designing.
To choose colleges offering MS in VLSI designing go to websites like
http://www.campustours.com/
http://www.petersons.com/
http://www.kaplan.com/
And do comparative analysis of schools offering courses in VLSI.
You can search for VLSI and then go to the respective department of grad school to find out the research areas and check if they match to your areas of interests.
In India:
Post Graduate Degree
For the people who have passion for Chip Designing and want to learn it in India you need not get disappointed. Though major job opportunities are available in US nowadays all big companies are opening their offices in India and most of them are located in Bangalore and Hyderabad. So there is good future in this field in India also.
If you wish to pursue post graduate degree here in India you need to take up GATE (conducted by Indian Institute of Technology on second Sunday of every February) in Electrical Engineering/Computer Engineering. Then after clearing GATE you can apply for MTech course. There are different specializations available at each IIT school.
For more details you can go to websites of IIT
IIT Delhi
IIT Bombay
IIT Madras
IIT Kanpur
IIT Kharagpur
IIT Guvahati
IIT Rurki
Post Graduate Diploma
Here in India you have one more option to do specialization in this field. But that is not in depth as MS or Mtech but those are Diploma courses offered by CDAC
CDAC offers 2 Diploma courses for Electronics/Electrical Engineers or Engineers of related branches who want to make a career in digital IC designing. The courses are of short duration and not in-depth like Degree courses obliviously but good one to enter in this field.
What Is CDAC?
C-DAC and ACTS
Established in March 1988, as a Scientific Society of the Department of Information Technology, Government of India, the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), is primarily an R&D institution involved in design, development and deployment of advanced Information Technology (IT) based solutions including a range of high performance parallel computers known by the PARAM series.
C-DAC's Advanced Computing Training School (ACTS) is dedicated to creating high quality manpower in IT through a network of more than 100 Authorized Training Centres (ATC) in India, besides C-DAC's own centres in Pune, Delhi, Hyderabad & Bangalore.
DVLSI: : DIPLOMA IN VLSI DESIGNING
Course Focus
The Diploma in Very Large Scale Integration Design (DVLSI) is a course intended to launch present and future electronic designers into the vast field of Electronic Design Automation. The course contents have been designed keeping in view the emerging trends in the field of VLSI design technology and emerging needs for skilled manpower. For more details go to http://acts.cdacindia.com/vlsimain/vlsimain.htm
DESD : DIPLOMA IN EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN
Course Focus
This course is more useful for the people who have interest in their respective stream of Engineering like communications, Process control , Consumer Electronics as well as Software . This course gives equal emphasis on hardware and software thus enabling Electronic design Engineers to meet needs of Electronics and IT Industry for the development of the Embedded Systems. For more details go to http://www.cdacindia.com/html/misc/desd/desd.asp
Further Information
For further information you can mail directly to
webmaster@cdacindia.com
acts@cdac.ernet.in
Or visit website www.acts.cdacindia.com
AFTER ALL THIS EDUCATION AND YEARS OF HARD WORK IN ENGINEERING COLLEGE, IS THE MONEY WORTH IT?
Well, that really is a matter of personal choice. For those who want to be ambitious engineers, let us level the field of expectations! A fresh college graduate entering the VLSI field can expect a starting salary in the range of $45,000 to $55,000 per year. In India, the range is Rs. 2 lakhs upwards per year depending on the company, the need and the skill level demonstrated. Design engineers are the most sought after because of the industry’s emphasis on continuous new product development, miniaturization and innovation in integration. Typically, a graduate with a Master’s degree can expect about 10% higher than the one with a Bachelor’s and someone with a Ph.D. can expect a wide range. As you gain the experience, this field offers one of the best growths potential, both on the technical as well as management ladder. Salary surveys can be found on-line at www.ieee.org
WHAT ARE THE TYPICAL COMPANIES I CAN SEARCH FOR ON THE WEB TO GET MORE INFORMATION ON JOBS?
Most of the big and established companies in the VLSI field are based in the USA. Intel, IBM, Texas Instruments, Motorola, National Semiconductor, Maxim, Linear Technology, Siemens, Qualcomm, are some of the biggest names just to mention a few. All have impressive websites and loads of information.
WHERE TO FIND MORE RESOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION ON VLSI?
If you are charged up and wish to explore resources available for VLSI then for technical information, your best starting place is the university web pages.
You can also vist the link below for all resources available for VLSI
http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/Lab/3184/
Courtsey
Mr. Tanmay Bhide
Mr. Kaustubh Chaporkar.
Web Administrator
CDAC India
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